Oil Drilling Essay examples - 1403 Words

Crude oil is black gold that has been even sought out even in the ancient times. The Chinese in the fourth century drilled 800 feet deep oil wells to burn the oil to produce salt. Oil has a long history. America’s has massive oil demands and off-shore drilling has become a temporary solution and scientist are trying to find alternative sources of energy that can last us a very long time. There are many disadvantages and hazards when it comes to offshore drilling. Theses disadvantages can affect the wildlife, animal population, marine environments, pollution and much more. With there being so many disadvantages for offshore drilling, why continue drilling? Oil that is spilled in the ocean water can kill. When oil is spilled, oil floats†¦show more content†¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"The focus on preening overrides all other natural behaviors; including feeding and evading predators, making the bird vulnerable to secondary health problems such as severe weight loss, anemia and dehydration.† (IBRRC) The only ones that survive are the one that are rescued by rescue workers. Oil suffocates fishes. If directly exposed to the oil, a mucous like film covers the body and gills. Crude oil has a toxic compound that is easily dissolved in fish tissue. One of the toxic compounds is Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH). Oil can cause abnormal development and deformities in fish larvae if they come in contact and can affect fish population. â€Å"Spills in rivers and streams disperse the oil by agitation and are similarly more toxic to fish.† (ehow) Oil rigs use drilling mud or drilling fluid, which is a toxic lubricant that is used in the process of drilling deep boreholes that will be drilled for oil and gas extraction. â€Å"Historically, contaminated and dirty mud was dumped in open pits, allowing the natural environment to become polluted.† (Smith, 2010) One drilling platform normally drills between seventy and one hundred wells and discharges more than 90,000 metric tons of drilling fluids and metal cuttings into the ocean.† (Oceana) Chemicals are poisonous to organisms. Plankton is the smallest organisms, that consist of bacteria, animals, Achaea, and plants and is a vital part in the food chain. These chemicals can affect theShow MoreRelatedOil Drilling and Pollution870 Words   |  3 Pages One way that drilling for oil destroys animals homes is that fossil fuels create carbon dioxide, and then that burned carbon dioxide goes into the atmosphere and then Global Warming is starting to melt the ice caps that animals live on. Also, drilling the new wells that we have to drill to get the oil, that makes the amount of land for the animals to make homes go down, and when the land amount goes down so does the length of the animals, like the polar bear, go down. The average length of the polarRead MoreAlaska Oil Drilling1301 Words   |  6 Pagesdegradation. An example that sheds light on the conflict between human interests and environmental responsibility is the controversial approval of the oil drilling in the Northern Slope region of Alaska and the drilling that has already began, in the Tar Sands of Alberta. In this paper I will firstly explain the situation regarding why the drilling for oil is up for debate to take place. Secondly I will assess the benefits and the irreparable damage that could possibly bring forth devastating effectsRead MoreArctic Oil Drilling1508 Words   |  7 Pagesevery month or so as a result of the scarcity of oil. Some people just shrug the price increas e off and cope with it, but the economic effect is far greater than it first appears. As the price of oil increases, so does the price of all other products that are transported. There is, however, an opportunity for the United States to increase the supply of available crude oil by drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. The idea of drilling in the Arctic has been controversial and to the presentRead MoreThe Disadvantages Of Oil Drilling Offshore2181 Words   |  9 Pages The Disadvantages of Oil Drilling In Environmentally Sensitive Areas In The United States Oil drilling in environmentally sensitive areas in the United States had been an ongoing controversial problem for a very long time. There are so many opinions along with outlooks on the present topic. Many people are against oil drilling offshore because of the issues that it creates. However, there are many critics that agree with drilling in environmentally sensitive areas because they do not worry aboutRead MoreOffshore Oil Drilling2928 Words   |  12 Pageslife? Some people do, and when people are offshore drilling they can cause a lot of problems if something goes wrong. The biggest concern by environmentalist is not a spill, but the pollution of the air and water, damage to the ocean bottom and debris that washes ashore from day-to-day operations of oil and gas rigs. Oil Drilling can lead to jobs being endangered, animals dying, and damaging the eco system. So many animals are dying because of the oil in the water. Proofread to- Government wildlifeRead MoreThe Deepwater Hor izon Is An Oil Drilling Rig1661 Words   |  7 PagesThe Deepwater Horizon is an oil drilling rig that was built in South Korea by Hyundai Heavy Industries in 2001. The rig was a massive mobile drill as it was measured to be â€Å"396 by 256 feet† (Report). Additionally, it was considered to be an exploratory rig, not an actual excavator rig. The rig was commissioned to Transocean which later leased it to British Petroleum, an oil and gas company. The oil rig was once well known as â€Å"it set the world record for the deepest oil and gas well †¦ 35,055 feet†Read MoreFshore Oil Drilling Job1229 Words   |  5 Pagesconveys ideas and information through communication using four of its major functions such as â€Å"control, motivation, emotional expression and information† (p. 299). The offshore oil-drilling job is complex and needs engineering expertise. BP had undertaken deep-water oil drilling at the Macondo well using the Transocean offshore oil rig. It is expected that BP and its partner, Halliburton, Transocean needed detailed collaborative communication plan across between all the parties. Let us examine some ofRead MoreOffshore Oil Drilling On The Environment1474 Words   |  6 PagesOffshore Oil Drilling â€Å"If we do nothing, it doesn t matter how we feel. And that’s exactly what oil companies are banking on: out of sight, out of mind† (Hart, 24). Petroleum is a naturally occurring oil found under deep layers of rock (â€Å"oil drilling†). Oil drilling is when a pipe penetrates through these several layers of rock in order to reach the petroleum oil underneath. This oil can then be purified or turned into gasoline for energy use. Offshore oil drilling, like its’ name describes, isRead MoreThe Global Spread Of Oil Drilling2565 Words   |  11 Pages2016 Oil Drilling The global spread of oil drilling is connected to the reasons why oil was first exploited in the first place; it was plentiful, it had the highest energy density per weight, it was not already being exploited. Chief to the purpose of this paper on oil drilling lies in the words was and had. The fact that those words are in the past, and the idea that things superior to oil have come along, is something that needs to be brought up more often. The fact is that oil, as a resourceRead MoreThe Arctic Oil Drilling Industry2148 Words   |  9 PagesArctic oil drilling industry can be seen as one of the most driven economic gains and a step ahead for the country to become energy independence. Nonetheless, the price that comes with this gold liquor has shifted the country’s mission to harvest and provide a clean, eco-friendly energy. The continuous drilling processes come with negative impacts towards the areas involved: in this case, The Chukchi Sea, The Beaufort Sea and The Arctic N ational Wildlife Refuge (ANWR). In order to sustain the oil drilling

Essay on Reaching for a Dream in Literature - 1381 Words

Selfish Dream Everyone has their dreams and whoever puts all his or her efforts and determination in pursuing that goal is the one who will succeed. However, there are dreamers who have misconceptions about the art of dreaming. In three pieces of literature I have encountered: â€Å"The Achievement of Desire† by Richard Rodriguez, â€Å"A Raisin in the Sun† by Lorraine Hansberry and â€Å"Fences† by August Wilson, its characters fight for their dreams regardless obstacles in their life. Nevertheless, they expose their sense of self-absorbance while seeking their dreams. Dreaming and aspiration are human senses, but when one considers his or her dream more important than the others, dreaming becomes another aspect of selfishness. In general, to fulfill†¦show more content†¦Blindingly pursuit his ideal life, most importantly, the man has lost his social skills which he assumes himself a â€Å"bad boy†. Even though the man has enough intellectual knowledge to get aware of his temporary problems, he does not make any changes. His selfishness dynamically expresses later on in adulthood. He admits that he is always unconfident, sad and anxious. Moreover, he develops a sense of disrespect to his parents. He makes fun at correct their grammar mistakes; He get sick of their constant encouragement; He is disgraceful parent because they can help him with his homework. The character obviously does nothing to compensate for his parent sacrifice. He is an outstanding student, but in the human sense, he fails to be an educated person. He once admits: â€Å"He cannot afford to admit his parents (How could he still and pursuit such a contrary life?). He permits himself embarrassment at their lack of educatio n† (Rodriquez 3). He may think that now with an excellent education, he is in a higher level than others including his parents. Therefore, he feels ashamed of them. Getting rejected from the society and suffering a state of loneliness are a pricey cost of success that Richard Rodriquez’s character decides to take. People expose the selfishness when they dismiss others’ aspiration base on their perspective. August Wilson’sShow MoreRelatedThe Great Gatsby By F. Scott Fitzgerald1278 Words   |  6 Pageswhen it was first released it has made up for lost time and is now one of the greatest classics in American literature and being read in classrooms all across the United States. What actually denotes a book as a classic or great, though? In my opinion, a lot of it has to do with what a person needs at the time. According to James L. W. West III, leading Fitzgerald scholar and English literature professor at Pennsylvania State University, â€Å"[Gatsby] never seems to lose its modernity; it has that kindRead MoreEssay about Symbols of a Worn Path679 Words   |  3 PagesSymbols of A Worn Path Mitchell Davis Freshmen Comp Critical Literature-Based Essay Friday, March 12, 2009 Symbols of A Worn Path Phoenix Jackson; an old negro woman that partakes on a journey to take medicine to her sick nephew that is off in another town. Phoenix is old and through the story there are many accounts that I think are symbolic to being of age. Being one with nature Phoenix Jackson is determined to travel through the forest to tend to her sick nephew. The story itselfRead MoreSymbols in The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald Essay1143 Words   |  5 PagesThe Great Gatsby is one of the most read pieces of literature throughout the current modern Western world. High school kids all across the globe must learn and read it as part of their curriculum. One of the aspects that makes this novel so notable is that Fitzgerald, at no point in the story, needs to convey to his audience the theme of his novel directly. The main points of his novel are brought out by the powerful symbols he infuses in the book. Not only does he use them to convey his themeRead MoreThe Great Gatsby And Harlem By Langston Hughes1089 Words   |  5 Pagesroaring 20’s was an astounding time in the history of the United States of America. Many authors published novels, poems, and other works of literature to show their readers what it would be like to experience this time frame. Some examples of these works include The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzg erald and â€Å"Harlem† by Langston Hughes. Both of these pieces of literature include literary elements to appeal to the reader’s senses and imagination. A prevalent theme that has been found in works of the roaringRead MoreAnalysis Of The Jungle And Good Enough By Upton Sinclair1567 Words   |  7 PagesIn today’s modern era, worldwide immigration has increased at historic rates, leading to the inevitable evolution of the challenges immigrants face after arriving to a new country. The analyzation of immigration literature gives readers valuable insight into the lives of immigrants and the hardships they face. The Jungle by Upton Sinclair follows the lives of a Lithuanian immigrant family in the early 20th century as they strive to attain success by working in the meatpacking industry of PackingtownRead MoreMen in The Sun, A Review Essay736 Words   |  3 PagesGhassan Kanafani is one of the famous Arab writers who represent resistance literature. His writin g was mainly devoted to depict the struggle of his people and ignite new resistance acts against Israeli forces of occupation. The writer affirmed the strong determination of the Palestinian people to liberate their occupied lands whatever the cost would be. Kanafani was a writer and journalist from Acre, the editor of al-Hadaf. A member of the Political Bureau of PFLP and its spokesperson, he publishedRead MoreNegative Capability within Kubla Khan Essay1029 Words   |  5 PagesThere are a myriad of critical theory lenses that can be applied and utilized to closely observe pieces of literature. One of these theories is John Keats’s Negative Capability theory which consists of an idea of â€Å"†¦when man is capable of being in uncertainties, Mysteries, doubts, without any irritable reaching after fact reason†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Keats 968). Ultimately, this signifies that in poetry the emphasis be placed on the significance of inquisitiveness and the asking of questions o f the life and sceneryRead MoreApplication For Admission At Kent State University1077 Words   |  5 Pagesearning my Master’s Degree in English and Comparative Literature from Tours University in France, I worked for nine years as an English and English as a second language instructor in higher and secondary education institutions in France, the Middle East and in the state of Ohio. Now I have decided to take my professional career to another level by undertaking a doctoral program that will prepare and capacitate me to teach English language and literature in higher education institutions. The decisionRead MoreOne Flew Over The Cuckoos Nest Critical Analysis1479 Words   |  6 Pagessees them not only while he is awake, but also in his slumber. Bromden alerts the reader of a dream that he had, in which a death of a patient occurs, the dream becomes a reality later on when the same patient is found dead. The hallucinations and dreams can help to better understand Chief Bromden’s character from looking at Sigmund Freud’s â€Å"Interpretation of Dreams†. By looking at the content of one’s dreams it can be a good indication of an individual s mental stability. Bromden’s thoughts and motivationsRead MoreAmerican Literature in the Period between 1914-1945887 Words   |  4 Pagesdance, and music, and also literature. The American literary of the 1914’s-1945 modern era became a reflection of a nation attempting to come to terms of what it really meant to be of modernity. First, there was a time period when America was prosperous with the growing new innovations that shaped America to today’s foundation. America has also faced the tremendous downfalls such as the Great Depression, greatly impacted Americans’ outlook on â€Å"reaching† the American dream. Gregory Rodriguez stated

Accounting Practices

Question: Write a report on the accounting practices related to the determination of the compensation packages and audit. Answer: Introduction This report is on the discussion regarding the accounting practices related to the determination of the compensation packages and audit. The report is divided in to two parts. In the first part, the report focuses on the compensation package and relates the discussion with the case study of Strong Built Construction Company. On the other side, the second part of the report focuses mainly on two previous research papers and makes the discussion based on finding of those two research papers. At the end of the study, an overall conclusion is given. Elements of compensation packages A package of compensation in an organization includes some key elements. In case of the organization that is Strong Built Construction Company, the key elements of the compensation packages of the employees are as under: Basic Salary: It is the most important element of a compensation package within a company. It is the compensation, which Strong Built Construction Company provides its employees for their daily efforts. This portion of the compensation package depends on the ability, experience and skills of the employees (Taylor, 2016). Incentives: Another key element of the compensation package of the employees of Strong Built is incentive. The company generally pays the incentive for long-term basis. This element of the compensation package plays a vital role in motivating the employees. Employee benefits: This element of compensation package includes different insurance plans for the employees like, health insurance, disability insurance or life insurance and at the same time, it also includes the catastrophic expenses. Along with these, different types of pension and savings plans are also included (Tornikoski, Suutari Festing, 2014). Annual bonus: This element of compensation package is given by the company on the basis of the annual profit or income earned by the company. This is another motivational factor for the employees. Assumptions of traditional agency theory and its influences on compensation As per the traditional agency theory, there are mainly two key assumptions based on which the traditional agency theory has been built. These two key assumptions are as under: The interests of the principals are morally acceptable for all the time In order to fulfill the own interests, the managers of the organizations must act unethically These above-mentioned two key assumptions of traditional agency theory have great influence on the approaches to the compensation of the company. The assumptions of the traditional agency theory clearly indicate that there is a conflict between the interests of the principal or the shareholders and the agents or the managers or employees (Foss Stea, 2014). These assumptions actually influence both the parties (shareholders and managers) in increasing the level of compensation. In case of Strong Built Construction Company, the managers want to build such a compensation approach in which their annual bonus will be higher, when the company is earning good amount of profit (Pepper Gore, 2015). However, on the other side, the shareholders or principals or owners of the company wants to pay less annual bonus so that their portion of profit becomes high. Difference and relationship between extrinsic and intrinsic motivations The main difference between the extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation is that in case of extrinsic motivation, individuals are motivated by the external factors like, medal, grades, money or trophy (Taylor, 2016). There is no guarantee that the extrinsic motivation gives actual fun or enjoyment to the individuals. Sometimes, the individuals are motivated by extrinsic motivational factors just to achieve an outcome that is considered as higher achievement by the society. On the other side, in case of the intrinsic motivation, the individuals are motivated by the internal factors like, interests and will of self-development. This type of motivation provides the actual enjoyment or fun to the individuals (Tornikoski, Suutari Festing, 2014). However, the relationship between these two motivations is that in both types of motivations, the individuals achieve something that helps in improvements of the individuals. Both of the motivations help to achieve something at a higher level. Therefore, if an individual tries to achieve something by focusing on both the extrinsic and intrinsic motivational factors, then he or she can achieve the goal properly and happily. Influence of employees attitude to risks on the desire of compensation package The attitude of the employee towards the risk actually has a great influence on his or her compensation package. In an organization like Strong Built Construction Company, there may be some employees are, those can take risk, some are risk aviator and some can take the risk to a moderate level. Therefore, in case of the risk taker employees, the compensation package is generally high because these employees take challenges and responsibilities (Bolton, Mehran and Shapiro, 2015). There are some activities, on which the future of the company depends but these are risky. Now, in case of risky decision, the company pays more benefits or extra payments to the employees because by taking more risk, the company can gain more profits or income, which increases the compensation package. On the other side, if the employees do not take risk, then there is no question of getting higher payment or extra benefits. Influence of time of receiving the financial benefits on the employees desire for benefits The time of receiving the financial benefits also influences the employees desire for getting the benefits (Hermanson et al. 2012). For example, if the Strong Built Construction Company pays the incentives to the managers or employees in long-term basis, then the employees will desire to get higher amount of money at a time. On the other side, if the company pays the incentives on year-to-year basis, then the employees will desire to get more compensation in each year due to the addition of incentive. However, in that case the total amount of incentive will be less. Role of fairness consideration in determination of compensation The consideration of fairness plays a vital role at the time of determining the compensation for the employees. In case of Strong Built Construction Company, the company must keep in mind that at the time of determining the compensation of the employees, it must be fair to each of the employees. The employees belong from same organizational position, must have same basic pay level. However, the company must consider the experience of the employee (Taylor, 2016). If an employee is more experienced than the others are, then that employee must get higher compensation than others must. At the same time, determination of the compensation also depends on the fairness of the employees towards the company. If the company identifies any unfair attitude of the employee, then it can deduct the money from the employees compensation (O'Reilly et al. 2014). Reason of providing benefits at the time of compensation determination An executive compensation committee is the authority, which acts on behalf of the boards responsibilities of providing or designing the compensation package for the employees (Tornikoski, Suutari Festing, 2014). However, this particular committee may provide the benefits to the employees of the organization at the time of determining the compensation for the employees. The executive compensation committee generally does this in order to motivate the employees to improve their level of performance. At the same time, if the committee identifies the performance of any employee above the standard level, then also the committee may provide benefits at the time of determining the compensation package. Structure of executive compensation committee for best outcomes As per the rules and guidelines provided by NYSE, all the companies those are listed on the stock exchange are required to form an executive compensation committee (Hermanson et al. 2012). However, in order to structure the executive compensation committee, at first, the company needs to consider the board of directors. The executive compensation committee includes the Chief Executive Director of the company along with the other executive officers. At the time of structuring the executive compensation committee, it must be kept in mind that no non-executive director should be included within the committee (Ims, Pedersen Zsolnai, 2014). This is because, the non-executive directors have their personal interests within the company. Conclusion and Recommendations From the above discussion, it can be said that there are mainly four key elements of a compensation package of a company. These elements are basic pay, annual bonus, long-term incentives and employee benefits. There is a conflict between the interests of the shareholders and managers of the company. On the other side, there are two types of motivations like, intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation and these two differ from each other. However, both of these two motivations help to improve the performance of the individuals. In case of the compensation package of the employee, the time, fairness and employees attitude towards risk have vital influence. On the other side, the executive compensation committee decides the compensation package of the employees. Therefore, from these, it can be identified how the Strong Built Construction Company can determine the compensation of its employees for increasing the satisfaction and work motivation of the employees. The recommendations for Strong Built Compensation Committee are as under: The company must focus on the extrinsic and intrinsic motivation of the employees. However, these two motivational factors may change based on the nature of the employee. The company may include more elements to the compensation package of the employees. This will increase the value of the compensation package. Hence the job satisfaction and work motivation will come. The company must fix the time for paying the financial benefits to the employees. Either the company may provide the financial benefits in each month or in long-term basis, but it must be fixed. Reference List: Bolton, P., Mehran, H. and Shapiro, J., (2015). Executive compensation and risk taking.Review of Finance, 49 Foss, N Stea, D. (2014). Putting a realistic theory of mind into agency theory: implications for reward design and management in principalà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ agent relations', European Management Review, 101-16. Hermanson, DR, Tompkins, JG, Veliyath, R Ye, ZS. (2012). The compensation committee process, Contemporary Accounting Research, 666-709. Ims, KJ, Pedersen, LJT Zsolnai, L. (2014). How economic incentives may destroy social, ecological and existential values: the case of executive compensation, Journal of Business Ethics, 353-60. O'Reilly, CA, Doerr, B, Caldwell, DF Chatman, JA. (2014). Narcissistic CEOs and executive compensation, The Leadership Quarterly, 218-31. Pepper, A Gore, J. (2015). Behavioral agency theory new foundations for theorizing about executive compensation, Journal of Management, 1045-68. Taylor, S. (2016). 9. Compensation policy and employee turnover.Research Handbook on Employee Turnover, 166. Tornikoski, C., Suutari, V., Festing, M. (2014). Compensation package of international assignees.The Routledge Companion to International Human Resource Management, 289.

Japanese Hrm free essay sample

International Journal of Human Resource Management, Human Resource Management Journal, Organizational Dynamics and Asian Business and Management. In 2005 he co-edited a book entitled â€Å"Japanese Management: The Search for a New Balance between Continuity and Change† with Palgrave. Anne-Wil Harzing is Professor in International Management at the University of Melbourne, Australia. Her research interests include international HRM, expatriate management, HQsubsidiary relationships, cross-cultural management and the role of language in international business. She has published about these topics in journals such as Journal of International Business Studies, Journal of Organizational Behaviour, Strategic Management Journal, Human Resource Management, and Organization Studies. Her books include Managing the Multinationals (Edward Elgar, 1999) and International Human Resource Management (Sage, 2010). Since 1999 she also maintains an extensive website (www. harzing. com) with resources for international and cross-cultural management as well as academic publishing and bibliometrics. Abstract The objective of this chapter is to develop suggestions as to how Japanese multinational corporations (MNCs) might best make use of foreign, here specifically American and German, HRM practices in order to reform their own HRM model. We will write a custom essay sample on Japanese Hrm or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page These suggestions are based on a large scale empirical study, encompassing responses from more than 800 HR managers. The learning possibilities for Japanese companies from abroad are analyzed on two different levels: at headquarters and at subsidiary level. One obvious difficulty we are presented with if we wish to answer the question what Japan can learn from ‘the West’ is the selection of countries that are representative of ‘the West’. In this study we limit our empirical research to the inspirations Japan might receive from the USA and Germany. This selection has some merit, in representing the largest and the third 2 3 largest developed economies in the world (with Japan being the second largest economy), and the economically dominant nations of North America and Europe (with Japan being the leading economy in Asia). In addition, the USA and Germany each embody the prime example of two of the three main varieties of market economies: the USA representing the free market economy of Anglo-Saxon countries and Germany the social market economy of continental Europe (with Japan embodying the third main variety of market economies, the government-induced market economy of East-Asia). Furthermore, according to Smith Meiksins (1995: 243) the USA, Japan and Germany are most frequently referred to as role models, â€Å"as they provide ‘best practice’ ideals from which other societies can borrow and learn. Consequently, these country models have been subject to numerous comparative analysis (Thurow, 1992; Garten, 1993; Yamamura and Streeck, 2003; Pascha, 2004; Jacoby, 2005). As economic performance and growth paths vary over time the role of a ‘dominant’ economy also rotates among countries. In the 1950s, 1960s and most of the 1970s the American management style clearly was domin ant and a common expectation was that it would spread around the world, gaining application in many foreign countries. From the late 1970s to the early 1990s, this argument increasingly was applied to Japan (Mueller, 1994), and to a lesser extent and limited to the European context, to Germany (Albert, 1991; Thurow, 1992). Since the implosion of the Japanese economy, the stagnation of the German economy, and with the advent of globalization, the conventional wisdom over the last one and a half decades up to the current economic crisis has been that the American management model is particularly well suited to provide the necessary flexibility to cope with rapidly evolving economic and technological conditions. Consequently, the USA became again the dominant role model (Edwards et al. , 2005). This study employs a very carefully matched design in which we investigate the same three countries (Japan, the USA and Germany) as home and host countries. We not only study HRM practices at headquarters (HQ) in each of these three countries, but also the practices of the subsidiaries of MNCs from each of the three countries in the two other respective countries. As a result, we re able to compare the HRM practices of nine different groups of companies: HQ in Japan, the USA and Germany, subsidiaries of Japanese and German MNCs in the USA, subsidiaries of Japanese and American MNCs in Germany and subsidiaries of American and German MNCs in Japan. This design will enable us to disentangle the inspirations companies seek from abroad to a far greater extent than has been possible in other studies. 3 4 The structure of our analysis is separated into two main sections. The first main section describes empi rical results from HQ and the second main section depicts the situation at subsidiary level. For each of the two main sections, first the context of existing research is summarized. Subsequently, the methodology of the empirical research is described. Findings are then presented and subsequently discussed. Finally, suggestions are made as to how the Japanese might best make use of foreign HRM policies to reform their own HRM practices and ultimately improve competitiveness. Research context As mentioned above, the Japanese HRM model has often been recognized as a key factor to the rise of the Japanese economy, particularly during the 1980s (see for example Inohara, 1990). However, the same Japanese HRM which until recently has been much celebrated in the West, and presented as a role-model to be learned from (see for example Vogel, 1979; Ouchi, 1981; Peters and Waterman, 1982; Bleicher, 1982; Hilb, 1985), is now increasingly viewed as outmoded, and necessitating substantial reform (Frenkel, 1994; Smith, 1997; Yoshimura and Anderson, 1997; Crawford, 1998; Horiuchi, 1998; Ornatowski, 1998; El Kahal, 2001; Pudelko, 2005, 2007). Others, however, continue to stress its inherent strengths and warn against significant change (Kono and Clegg, 2001; Ballon, 2002; Ballon, 2006). On the other hand, American understanding of HRM has traditionally been viewed by Japanese managers with skepticism. It is regarded as contradicting in many ways the broad concept of ‘respect for people’ (Kono and Clegg, 2001) and the aim of ‘human resource development’ (Ballon, 2002) that is ingrained into the Japanese management philosophy. In particular, the idea of defining the employees of a company as ‘resources’ (instead of members of the company ‘family’) that need to be managed (instead of ‘developed’) runs contrary to the key concepts of traditional Japanese HRM. However, in response to the deep crisis of the Japanese economy and management model, which has lasted for more than a decade now, it is clear that some shift toward Western management principles is taking place 4 5 (Frenkel, 1994; Ornatowski, 1998; El Kahal, 2001; Matanle, 2003). Thus, mirroring the economic growth patterns, adoption of Japanese HRM principles seems in the USA to be largely an issue of the past, whereas the question of adoption of American HRM policies is more current in Japan than ever. The key issue in Japan seems to be to find a new balance between the continuation of traditional (human resource) management principles and changes inspired largely by Western or more specifically American strategies. Regarding finally the specific German understanding of (human resource) management, it has to be concluded that this is a subject of no significant importance in Japanese business research, if it is considered at all (Pudelko, 2000a). Methodology Data collection and sample It may be noted from this brief review that existing literature in this field is in some respects inconclusive or somewhat contradictory. Nor has it generally been informed by empirical examination of HR managers’ own views on cross-national adoption processes. As this group might be expected to constitute the chief change agent, empirical insight appears in this context all the more important. Accordingly, this chapter provides data on the perceptions of HR managers from three different countries on the possibility of learning from each other. In this task, a quantitative approach seemed to be the most appropriate. The analysis is therefore based on empirical data which have been drawn together from an extensive survey (Pudelko, 2000a-c). The heads of HR departments from the 500 largest corporations of Japan – and for comparative reasons – the USA and Germany were selected as units of investigation. It was assumed that the heads of HR departments would have the highest degree of experience, knowledge and vision with regard to the issues being investigated, due to their senior positions within corporate hierarchies.